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[51] The mission was named 'Operation Manna' after the food manna which is said to have miraculously appeared for the Israelites in the Book of Exodus. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (. 1 x 8,000 lb impact or barometric fused HC and up to 6 x 500 lbs impact or delay fused GP/HE bombs. [23], Lancasters from Bomber Command were to have formed the main strength of Tiger Force, the Commonwealth bomber contingent scheduled to take part in Operation Downfall, the codename for the planned invasion of Japan in late 1945. He argued that this would reduce the overall loss rate as it would have the benefit of increasing the Lancaster's cruise speed by up to 50 mph (80 km/h) (assuming the bomb load was not increased at the same time), and thus make the bomber harder to shoot down. [11][9] The resulting aircraft, named the Manchester, entered RAF service in November 1940. In February 1937, following consideration of the designs by the Air Ministry, Avro's design submission was selected along with Handley Page's bid being chosen as "second string". [39][note 5] The bomb bay doors were removed and the ends of the bomb bay were covered with fairings. [9] Various candidates were submitted for the specification by such manufacturers as Fairey, Boulton Paul, Handley Page and Shorts; all submissions were designed around two-engine configurations, using the Rolls-Royce Vulture, Napier Sabre, Fairey P.24 or Bristol Hercules engines. As early as mid-1940, Avro's chief design engineer, Roy Chadwick, had been working on an improved Manchester design. [19], The Lancaster B I was never fully superseded in production by a successor model, remaining in production until February 1946. [18] A total of 50 Austin-built Lancaster B Is were constructed to a non-standard configuration, having a Frazer Nash turret installed directly above the bomb bay; this modification was largely unpopular due to its obstruction of the internal walkway, hindering crew movements. [note 2][citation needed] The first batch of Canadian Lancasters delivered to England suffered from faulty ailerons; this error was subsequently traced to the use of unskilled labour. In the post-war climate, the Lancaster continued to see use for several more years, during which a number of high-profile operations were conducted. [23], Like any aeroplane the Lancaster was not viceless in its handling. The same inspector must approve a previously unapproved business location. Brown, Eric. Various other turret configurations were adopted by individual squadrons, which included the removal of various combinations of turrets. A total of 430 of this type were built, earlier examples differing little from their British-built predecessors, except for using Packard-built Merlin engines and American-style instruments and electrics. As a result of actions such as Operation Chastise and the sinking of Tirpitz, No. New York: NYU Press, 1995. ... College families are a massive deal at Lincoln, think "dynasty meals" and regular pidged chocolate. The FN-121 was the Automatic Gun Laying Turret (AGLT), an FN-120 fitted with Village Inn gun-laying radar. Starting at the nose, the bomb aimer had two positions to man. [58] Aerial tours of the devastated German cities were also performed using the type. [52], Adolf Galland (commander of the Luftwaffe fighters) considered the Lancaster to be "the best night bomber of the war",[53] as did his adversary, Arthur "Bomber" Harris, who referred to it as the RAF Bomber Command's "shining sword". Find all the latest news on the environment and climate change from the Telegraph. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2016. The B I and B III designated was effective interchangeable simply by exchanging the engines used, which was occasionally done in practice. The Avro Lancaster is a British Second World War heavy bomber. "[15] The first prototype was initially outfitted with a three-finned tail layout, a result of the design having been adapted from the Manchester I; this was quickly revised on the second prototype, DG595, and subsequent production Lancasters to the familiar larger elliptical twin-finned tail unit that had also been adopted for the later-built Manchesters, discarding the stubby central third tail fin. [23] Compared with other contemporary aircraft, the Lancaster was not an easy aircraft to escape from as its escape hatch was only 22 in × 26.5 in (56 cm × 67 cm) in size; in a Halifax or Stirling (which both had an escape hatch 2 in (5.1 cm) wider), 25 per cent of downed aircrew bailed out successfully, and in American bombers (albeit in daylight raids) it was as high as a 50 per cent success rate while only 15 per cent of the Lancaster crew were able to bail out. [citation needed], Behind the wireless operator were the two spars for the wing, which created a major obstacle for crew members moving down the fuselage even on the ground. [57] Immediately following the end of hostilities, the Lancaster was used as a crude transport aircraft, being used to ferry thousands of prisoners of war (POWs) back to the British Isles from across the continent. Home; Alumni; Obituaries; Obituary content by year; Obituaries 2002 Dummett, Hugo Tytherleigh (1940–2002) . [6], In the 1930s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers. [52] Aircraft allocated to the Tiger Force were painted in white with black undersides and outfitted with additional radio units and navigational aids to facilitate their use in the Pacific theatre. [57] A pair of Lancasters, PD328 and PB873, performed several ground-breaking long distance flights, including round-the-world and trans-polar trips. The operation was carried out by 617 Squadron in modified Mk IIIs carrying special drum-shaped bouncing bombs, which had been designed by British engineer Barnes Wallis. "Avro Lancaster – Handley Page Halifax – Short S.29 Stirling.". They were also produced at the Austin Motor Company works in Longbridge, Birmingham, later in the Second World War and post-war by Vickers-Armstrongs at Chester as well as at the Vickers Armstrong factory, Castle Bromwich, Birmingham. [5] This was the largest payload of any bomber in the war. [12] The majority of Lancasters manufactured during the war years were constructed by Avro at its factory at Chadderton near Oldham, Greater Manchester and were test-flown from Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire. Ammunition for the turret was 1,000 rounds per gun. [12] This redesign was powered by four of the more reliable but less powerful Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, specifically adopting the form of the Merlin "Power Plant" installations which had been developed by Rolls-Royce for the earlier Beaufighter II, installed on a larger wing. 617 and 9 Sqns, a combination of Lancaster B I and B III bombers were armed with 12,000 lb 'Tallboy' bombs and were adapted with enlarged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate their special payloads and additional fuel tanks to provide the necessary endurance. [49] From its entry into service, the original model of the Lancaster was operated in almost every major bombing raid of the European conflict. In 1947, one aircraft was flown non-stop 3,459 mi (5,567 km) from London to Bermuda. [20] Various additional bumps and blisters were also added, which would typically house radar equipment and radio navigational aids. [5][note 6], Specific bomb loads were standardised and given code names by Bomber Command:[44], Bombsights used on Lancasters included:[45]. Neither, The "Ruhr Express" the subject of a Canadian National Film Board production, Similar view and speed problems were commonplace in the era, having particularly afflicted the ventral turret in the, The Martin 250 CE 23A turret was the same unit which had been equipped upon many American bombers, such as the. If you had an unapproved inspection please provide who completed it and the date the unapproved inspection was completed. "Sam" Brown performed the prototype's maiden flight at RAF Ringway, Cheshire. During early 1942, No. A long, unobstructed bomb bay meant that the Lancaster could take the largest bombs used by the RAF, including the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg), 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) and 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) blockbusters, loads often supplemented with smaller bombs or incendiaries. Nine of these aircraft were produced, referred to as Lancaster XPPs (for Lancaster Mk.X Passenger Planes), and each was equipped with rudimentary passenger facilities. [14] Initially, the improved aircraft was designated as the Type 683 Manchester III; it was subsequently renamed as the Lancaster. If you are requesting a specific effective date, it must be within 15 days of today's date. During the late 1930s, none of these were ready for production. [citation needed], An important feature of the Lancaster was its unobstructed 33 ft (10 m) long bomb bay. During the latter half of 1944, a series of high-profile bombing missions were performed by the Lancaster against the German battleship Tirpitz. [17] In total, 3,030 B IIIs were constructed, almost all of them at Avro's Newton Heath factory. Most British-built Lancasters were fitted with the R1155 receiver and T1154 transmitter, whereas the Canadian-built aircraft and those built for service in the Far East had American radios. The original tail turret was equipped with four Browning .303 Mark II machine guns and all other turrets with two such machine guns.[29][30][31]. Only 35 Lancasters completed more than 100 successful operations each, and 3,249 were lost in action. 14 SBC, each with 236 x 4 lb Incendiary and Explosive Incendiary bomblets, total 3,304. The mid-upper gunner sat on a rectangle of canvas that was slung beneath the turret and would stay in position throughout the flight. Hugo Dummett was born in South Africa. Operational research experts, including British scientist Freeman Dyson, amongst others, attempted unsuccessfully to have the escape hatch enlarged. [citation needed], Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era, Lancaster pilot at the controls, left, flight engineer at right, The flight engineer checks control panel from his seat, Mark X nose with twin .303 Brownings in turret over bomb-aimer's position, Top view of the nose turret and the bomber's station. When the "Execute p1" button is clicked the javascript function p1 is executed. Start main page content. [36], Gunners using both the FN-20 and 120 removed perspex and armour from the turret to improve visibility, but trials by the RAF showed that a Mosquito night fighter was still able to get within a very short distance of the tail gunner without being spotted, confirming what the Luftwaffe had already realised. [17] Examples of modifications made include the relocation of the pitot head from the nose to the side of the cockpit and the change from de Havilland "needle blade" propellers to Hamilton Standard or Nash Kelvinator made "paddle blade" propellers. 1 x 4,000 lb impact fused HC and up to 18 x 500 lb GP bombs, with both impact and delay fusing. Photo-reconnaissance Lancasters were used to aerially survey Central and East Africa and at least one was later operated by the Ministry of Aviation. The pilot and other crew members could use the panel above the cockpit as an auxiliary emergency exit while the mid-upper gunner was expected to use the rear entrance door to leave the aircraft. The weight in kilograms of the "Tall Boy" and "Grand Slam" bombs differs according to source. Lancaster play a prominent part in Appointment in London with Dirk Bogarde. [40][41] Two Aldis lights were fitted in the rear bomb bay fairing, aimed forward so the bomb aimer could see the converging lights below his blister in the nose; the optimum height for dropping "Upkeep" was 60 ft and, when shone on the relatively smooth waters of the dam's reservoirs, the light beams converged into a figure 8 when the Lancaster was flying at the correct height. [50] Executed by Nos. From 1942 onwards, the Lancaster became the mainstay of the British heavy bomber fleet; by the end of the war in Europe, there were roughly 50 squadrons equipped with the Lancaster, the majority of these being the Lancaster B I model. In 1943, a Lancaster was converted to become an engine test bed for the Metropolitan-Vickers F.2 turbojet. Aircraft intended to carry the "Grand Slam" required extensive modifications. A total of three attacks, individually codenamed Operation Paravane, Operation Obviate and Operation Catechism, were conducted against Tirpitz, which was anchored in a fjord in Occupied Norway. Not all aeroplanes did this, for example the Halifax would tend to get increasingly tail heavy as speed increased and thus fly itself out of the dive. Including daily emissions and pollution data. PornHD picks up where other porn tubes fold with stylish appearance, all videos in high definition and the best stars in the porn industry. 617 Sqn against the Bielefeld viaduct in North Rhine-Westphalia. [7] These designs put limited demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were already stretched with the introduction of so many new types into service. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. 6 x 2,000 lb short-delay fused AP bombs, plus other GP/HE bombs based on local needs or availability. [64] They served throughout the 1950s, when they were replaced by the Lockheed Neptune and Canadair Argus. A civilian airliner was based on the Lancaster, known as the Lancastrian. NA 337[88], For the 2018 flying season, to commemorate the 75th anniversary of Operation Chastise, the Canadian Warplane Heritage Lancaster is painted in the markings of Guy Gibson's 617 Squadron aircraft (Code AJ-G, ED932) when he commanded the "Dambusters" raids. Originally developed as an evolution of the Manchester (which had proved troublesome in service and was retired in 1942), the Lancaster was designed by Roy Chadwick and powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlins and in one version, Bristol Hercules engines. The inaugural flight from Dorval (Montreal) to Prestwick, Scotland on 22 July 1943, was completed non-stop in a record 12:26 hours; the average crossing time was about 13:25 hours. vendor's site you will be redirected back to MyDMV to complete your application. An instrument panel showing the airspeed, altitude, and other information required for navigation was mounted on the side of the fuselage above the chart table. Animal rights is the philosophy according to which some, or all, animals are entitled to the possession of their own existence and that their most basic interests—such as the need to avoid suffering—should be afforded the same consideration as similar interests of human beings. [49], On 17 October 1942, another audacious daytime raid was performed by 90 Lancasters of No. Belfast-based aircraft firm Short Brothers had also received an order for 200 Lancaster B Is, but this was cancelled before any aircraft had been completed. [50] The first of these attacks disabled the vessel while the third mission was responsible for sinking the ship. [23] On 2 March 1942, the first operational mission of the Lancaster, deploying naval mines in the vicinity of Heligoland Bight, was performed by aircraft of No. Late on in the war, as a result of statistical analysis, Freeman Dyson put forward a case for the removal of the majority of the Lancaster's defensive armament. Mantelli, Brown, Kittel, Graf. [10], In response, British aviation company Avro decided to submit its own design, designated the Avro 679, to meet Specification P.13/36. "The Conquest of the Reich: D-Day to VE Day—A Soldiers' History". The prototype aircraft, serial number BT308, was assembled by the Avro experimental flight department at Ringway Airport, Manchester; the prototype was constructed from a production Manchester airframe, which was combined with a new wing centre section designed to accommodate the additional engines. This unit was equipped with B.III (Specials), officially designated the "Type 464 (Provisioning)", modified to carry the 9,250 lb (4,200 kg) "Upkeep" bouncing bomb. The total amount of plates requested exceeded the total amount of plates allowed. The wireless operator's radios were mounted on the left-hand end of the chart table, facing the rear of the aircraft. Before the end of the war Lancasters built in the UK standardised on the FN-82 fitted with two .50 inch machine guns and fitted with gun-laying radar as production allowed, which was also used on early models of the Avro Lincoln. [48], While the Lancaster had been designed to conduct night-time operations, daylight raids were occasionally performed by the type as well. [18] The first Lancaster produced in Canada was named the "Ruhr Express". In addition, four Lancaster IIIs were converted by Flight Refuelling Limited as two pairs of tanker and receiver aircraft for development of in-flight refuelling. A strengthened undercarriage and stronger mainwheels, later used by the Avro Lincoln, were fitted. [55] Together with the new Avro Lincoln and Liberators, the bombers would have operated from bases on Okinawa; the envisioned invasion did not happen when such action was made unnecessary by the surrender of Japan. [12] As a result, only 200 Manchesters were constructed and the type was quickly withdrawn from service in 1942.[13]. [52], Prior to the decision to carry out extensive modifications under Silverplate to the Boeing B-29 Superfortress to allow it deliver atomic bombs over Japan, serious consideration was given to using the Lancaster with its cavernous bomb bay instead. * - Main goods are marked with red color . Aside from a few elements, such as the fabric-covered ailerons, the Lancaster's oval-shaped fuselage had an all-metal covering. [citation needed] In August 1942, a British-built Lancaster B I, R5727, was dispatched to Canada as a pattern aircraft, becoming the first of the type to conduct a transatlantic crossing. [63], Beginning in 1946, Lancaster Mk Xs were modified for service with the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Accordingly, during April 1937, a pair of prototypes of both designs were ordered. [23] It possessed largely favourable flying characteristics, having been described by Goulding and Garbett as being: "a near-perfect flying machine, fast for its size and very smooth...such a delightfully easy aeroplane to fly...there are instances of Lancasters having been looped and barrel-rolled, both intentionally and otherwise". [23], The Lancaster benefited from a structure that possessed considerable strength and durability, which had been intentionally designed to maximise structural strength-per-weight; this resulted in the Lancaster being capable of withstanding some levels of damage resulting from attacks by hostile interceptor aircraft and ground-based anti-aircraft batteries. [citation needed], To the rear of the turret was the side crew door, on the starboard side of the fuselage. Some Lancaster B I bombers were outfitted with bulged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate increased armament payloads. The mid-upper turret was removed and a more bulbous bomb aimer's blister was fitted; this, as "Mod. When the Luftwaffe began using Schräge Musik to make attacks from below in the winter of 1943/1944, modifications were made, including downward observation blisters mounted behind the bomb aimer's blister[34] and official[35] and unofficial mounts for .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns or even 20 mm cannon, firing through the ventral holes of the removed FN-64. The Lancaster took on the role of long range anti-submarine patrol aircraft (later supplanted by the Avro Shackleton) and air-sea rescue. As it was quickly recognised that Avro's capacity was exceeded by the wartime demand for the type, it was decided to form the Lancaster Aircraft Group, which comprised a number of companies that undertook the type's manufacture, either performing primary assembly themselves or producing various subsections and components for the other participating manufacturers. [18] All of the wing and fuselage sections were manufactured separately, during which they were outfitted with all of the required equipment in advance of final assembly being performed, as a measure intended to accelerate the rate of production. His position allowed a 360° view over the top of the aircraft, with two Browning .303 Mark IIs to protect the aircraft from above and to the side. The tail gunner escaped by rotating his turret to the rear, opening the door in the back of the turret, passing into the fuselage, and clipping on a parachute that was hung on the side wall. It has been carefully restored from a vandalised state and is now a main tourist attraction. [citation needed], The Avro Lancaster was initially equipped with four Nash & Thompson Frazer Nash hydraulically operated turrets mounted in the nose, tail, mid-upper and underside. navigate away. [12] On 9 January 1941, test pilot H. A. Major General Leslie Groves, the director of the Manhattan Project, and General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), wished to use an American plane if this was at all possible.[56]. In March 1946, a Lancastrian of BSAA flew the first scheduled flight from the new London Heathrow Airport. : submarine pens); battleship. The license effective date is dependent upon application approval. On reaching the end of the bomb bay the floor dropped down to the bottom of the fuselage, and the mid-upper gunner's turret was reached. Neither the mid-upper nor the rear gunner's position was heated, and the gunners had to wear electrically heated suits to prevent hypothermia and frostbite. [54] Goulding and Garbett wrote that: "The achievements of the Lancaster and the men who flew it have been widely acclaimed, and the aircraft has been described as the greatest single factor in winning WWII, an exaggeration but a pardonable one". 617 Sq was perhaps the most famous of all Lancaster squadrons. [22], The Avro Lancaster was a British four-engined strategic bomber that was used as the RAF's principal heavy bomber during the latter half of the Second World War. As well as direct hits on very strong or durable targets (such as submarine pens) it could be used indirectly to create a. This was the main entrance to the aircraft, and also could be used as an emergency exit. VII and late Mk. A particularly famous mission performed by the Lancaster was the mission flown 16–17 May 1943, codenamed Operation Chastise, to destroy the dams of the Ruhr Valley. During early 1942, it was decided that the bomber should be produced in Canada, where it was manufactured by Victory Aircraft in Malton, Ontario. One of these was the Avro Lincoln bomber, initially known as the Lancaster IV and Lancaster V. These two marks became the Lincoln B1 and B2 respectively. A 617 Squadron Lancaster dropping a Grand Slam bomb on the Arnsberg viaduct, March 1945. While at our vendors site do not close your browser, navigate away, or click your back button. The "Lanc", as it was known colloquially,[3] became one of the most heavily used of the Second World War night bombers, "delivering 608,612 long tons of bombs in 156,000 sorties". Doing so will result in the voiding of your application. The bomb bay doors were removed and the rear end of the bomb bay cut away to clear the tail of the bomb. [7], The origins of the Lancaster stem from a twin-engined bomber design that had been submitted in response to Specification P.13/36, which had been formulated and released by the British Air Ministry during the mid 1930s. Do not refresh or In a dive it had a tendency to go deeper into the dive as speed increased. A drive belt and pulley to rotate the bomb at 500 rpm was mounted on the starboard strut and driven by a hydraulic motor housed in the forward fairing. [38] Bulged doors were added to 30 per cent of B Is to allow the aircraft to carry 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) and later 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) "Cookies". [42][43], After the 'Dam Busters' raid 617 Squadron was converted to a high altitude precision bombing squadron in preparation for the arrival of Barnes Wallace's forthcoming Earthquake bombs for attacking special and hardened targets, and while they were training for this the bouncing bomb variants of B I Specials had the spars and equipment removed and were then modified to carry the 21 ft (6.4 m) long 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) "Tallboy" bomb, a scaled down version of the upcoming 25.5 ft (7.8 m) long 22,000 lb (10,000 kg) "Grand Slam" "earthquake" bombs which were still being built. 1 x 9,250 lb, hydrostatic-fused "Upkeep" mine. Due to the weight, the ammunition was stored in tanks situated near the mid-upper turret's position and fed rearward in runways down the back of the fuselage to the turret. [61] These were flown until the mid-1960s by four squadrons stationed in France and New Caledonia in the maritime reconnaissance and search-and-rescue roles. Due to the high loss rates typically involved in such operations, daytime bombing missions were performed sparingly until the Allies had achieved a level of aerial supremacy over the Axis powers. [33] However this theory neglects the fact that the two main Luftwaffe night fighters of the time, the Me 110 and the Ju 88 in their night fighter versions were all capable of 300 mph (480 km/h), thus any 50 mph (80 km/h) increase over the Lancaster's normal cruising speed of around 180 mph (290 km/h),[i] (giving a speed of 230 mph (370 km/h)) still left the Lancaster well within the interception speeds of these two aircraft. The fitting of these guns was hampered as the same ventral position was used for mounting the H2S blister, which limited installations to those aircraft fitted with bulged bomb bays which interfered with the H2S. Another Lancaster, Just Jane, NX611, a B MkVII, based in East Kirkby Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre is able to taxi but is not currently airworthy, though there are plans to return her to flight in the future. Postwar, the Lancaster was supplanted as the main strategic bomber of the RAF by the Avro Lincoln, a larger version of the Lancaster. [21], The Lancaster B III was powered by Packard Merlin engines, which had been built overseas in the United States, but was otherwise identical to contemporary B Is. The ventral (underside) FN-64 turret quickly proved to be dead weight, being both difficult to sight because it relied on a periscope which limited the gunner's view to a 20-degree arc,[29] and too slow to keep a target within its sights. An RAF officer inspects the hole left by a Grand Slam in the reinforced concrete roof, RAF strategic bombing during the Second World War, Certified/factory-built aircraft manufactured in Canada, Radio, radar and countermeasures equipment, This aircraft carries the deepened bomb aimer blister (Mod. [note 3] Aside from early B Is and the prototype B IIs, the FN-64 was almost never used. It was designed and manufactured by Avro as a contemporary of the Handley Page Halifax, both bombers having been developed to the same specification, as well as the Short Stirling, all three aircraft being four-engined heavy bombers adopted by the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the same wartime era. [citation needed], In 1943, 617 Squadron was created to carry out Operation Chastise, the raid against the Ruhr dams. Of the 17 surviving and largely intact Lancasters known to exist, two are airworthy; one, PA474, based in Coningsby, the UK, is operated by The Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, and the other, called Vera (coded VR-A, FM213), is in Canada, operated by the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Mount Hope, a suburb of Hamilton, Ontario. The majority of these engines were under development at this point; while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B.12/36 for a heavy bomber, wings which mounted two pairs of engines were still in the experimental stage and required testing at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), the resulting increase in overall weight of adopting a stronger wing also necessitated further strengthening of the overall aircraft structure. Amongst the final wartime operations performed by the Lancaster was the destruction of Eagle's Nest, the extensive holiday home complex used by German leader Adolf Hitler. These included the removal of the dorsal turret and of two guns from the rear turret, removal of the cockpit armour plating (the pilot's seatback), and installation of Rolls-Royce Merlin Mk 24 engines for better take-off performance. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. At first, the heaviest bomb carried was the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) high capacity HC "Cookie". 6 x 1,000 lb short and long delay fused GP/HE bombs, additional 250 lb GP/HE bombs sometimes added. [61] During its Argentine service, Lancasters were used offensively in suppressing and supporting military coups. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. "From Warhorse to Workhorse: Lancaster Mk.10 Variants in Canada". [4] The versatility of the Lancaster was such that it was chosen to equip 617 Squadron and was modified to carry the Upkeep "bouncing bomb" designed by Barnes Wallis for Operation Chastise, the attack on German Ruhr valley dams. Very strong or durable structures (e.g. [citation needed], On the roof of the bomb bay the pilot and flight engineer sat side by side under the expansive canopy, with the pilot sitting on the left on a raised portion of the floor (almost all British bombers, and most German bombers, had only a single pilot seat as opposed to American practice of carrying two pilots, or at least having controls for two pilots installed).
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